Vaccination Recommendations for Exotic Mammals
Causative Agent | Disease | Vaccine Type | Recommended Animal Groups | Recommended Protocol |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Rabies virus | Rabies | Inactivated Recombinant, nonadjuvanted, modified live canarypox | Licensed in cats, dogs, sheep, cattle, horses, and ferrets Core vaccine in areas where endemic in all exotic carnivores, Old World bats, primates (including prosimians, great apes), macropods, elephants, artiodactylids, and perissodactylids | Varies based on taxon; licensed to start vaccination at 12 wk with booster at 1 yr, then every 3 yr or based on titer response |
Canine distemper virus | Canine distemper | Recombinanta nonadjuvanted MLV canarypox | Core vaccine in multiple families in order Carnivora Canarypox recommended for the following: Panthera spp of Felidaeb, Procyonidae, Hyaenidae, Mustelidae (licensed canarypox vaccine in ferrets), and most Canidae (MLV vaccine used in Mexican gray wolves (Canis lupus baileyi) and red wolves (C rufus) | Begin at 6–9 wk; booster every 3 wk for 3 doses, then annually or based on titer response |
Canine parvovirus | Canine parvovirus | Inactivated MLV | Core vaccine in Canidae: killed virus vaccine safest MLV vaccine used in red wolves, gray wolves, and adult maned wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) Killed virus vaccine recommended if indicated through risk-based assessment in giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca [family Ursidae]) and in the family Procyonidae, although MLV vaccine has been used in raccoons (Procyon lotor) | Begin at 6–9 wk; booster every 3 wk for 3 doses, then annually or based on titer response |
Feline parvovirus | Panleukopenia | Inactivated MLV | Core vaccine in all Felidae: recommend killed virus vaccine Killed virus vaccine also recommended if indicated through risk-based assessment in Hyaenidae, Viverridae, Mustelidae, Procyonidae, giant pandas of Ursidae | Begin at 6–9 wk; booster every 3 wk for 3 doses, then annually or based on titer response |
Clostridium tetani | Tetanus | Tetanus toxoid (included as part of multivalent clostridial vaccines or as part of DPT combination vaccine for primates) | Core vaccine in New and Old World monkeys, great apes, Equidae and Tapiridae, elephants Recommended vaccine in prosimians, macropods, artiodactylids, and rhinoceroses (often as part of multivalent clostridial vaccine) | Varies by taxa in foals; begin at 4–8 mo, booster after 4–6 wk, and then annually (similar to recommendation for tapirs, rhinoceroses, and elephants) Macropod young are often not vaccinated until they are out of the pouch, with booster at 4 wk, then annual booster recommended In artiodactylids as part of a multivalent clostridial vaccine, begin at 4–8 wk, booster after 3–4 wk, and then annually as able For primates with DPT/TDaP, recommend first dose at 6 mo, with boosters every 3 mo for 2–3 additional doses, and then booster after 4 yr |
Measles virus, mumps virus, rubella virus | Viral respiratory diseases of primates (measles, mumps, rubella/German measles) | MLVc | Core vaccine in great apes; recommended in Old World monkeys | 2-dose series starting at 12–15 mo; second dose can be at 4 wk after the first |
Influenza virus | Viral respiratory disease of great apes | Multiple variations of seasonal influenza vaccine exist, but recommended vaccines for veterinary use are inactivated or recombinant | Recommended vaccine in great apes | Annually; in the fall before influenza season |
Feline herpesvirus 1, feline calicivirus | Feline upper respiratory viral diseases (rhinotracheitis, calicivirus) | Inactivated MLV | Core vaccine in all Felidae; killed virus vaccine safest; some suggest MLV vaccine booster in cheetahsd | Begin at 6–9 wk; booster every 3 wk for 3 doses, then annually or based on titer response Vaccinating dams in the final trimester of pregnancy may boost maternal antibody protection to litter |
Eastern equine encephalitis, western equine encephalitis, West Nile virus | Equine encephalitides | Inactivated (often combined in multivalent vaccines; often in combination with tetanus toxoid; some combination products also contain equine influenza virus) | Core vaccine in equids | Begin at 4–6 mo with 4- to 6-wk intervals between first and second dose, and third dose at 10–12 mo; then booster annually |
Canine adenovirus 1 | Infectious canine hepatitis | MLV | Risk-based use in Canidae (use caution due to MLV vaccine components) and Ursidae | Begin at 6–9 wk, booster every 3 wk for 3 doses, then annually or based on titer response |
SARS-CoV2 | COVID-19 | Subunit or mRNA | Risk-based use in Panthera spp and primates | Generally recommend 2-dose primary schedule 4 wk apart with annual boosters |
Leptospira spp | Leptospirosis | Inactivated | Risk-based depending on geography in black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis) and greater1-horned rhinoceroses (Rhinoceros unicornis); Camelidae, Suidae, and Tayassuidae; Canidae; primates | Generally recommend 2-dose primary schedule 4 wk apart with annual boosters |
Rotavirus, coronavirus | Bovine viral diarrhea (calf scours) | MLV | Risk-based for 3rd trimester dams in artiodactylids (including Giraffidae) and/or in neonates | Dams: vaccinate parenterally in late pregnancy (3rd trimester), ideally with 2 doses 3–6 wk apart Neonates: oral vaccination at birth |
Abbreviations: MLV, modified live virus vaccine; DPT, diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus; mRNA, messenger RNA; TDaP, tetanus, diphtheria, acellular pertussis. aSafety and titer-based efficacy studies on MLV use in tigers after initial dose or series of canarypox vaccine. bManed wolves (C brachyurus) should be vaccinated with an inactivated virus vaccine product until protective titers (> 80) are present and then boosted with an MLV vaccine to avoid vaccine-associated disease. cCare must be used when using MLV measles vaccine in nonhuman primates because vaccine-induced disease has been reported; canine distemper virus vaccination has also been used in some species with evidence of cross-protection against measles. dSome institutions use MLV vaccine in cheetahs after an initial course with a inactivated virus vaccine. | ||||