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Merck Vet Manual LogoMERCK MANUALVeterinary Manual
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  1. <Veterinary Topics
    Exotic and Laboratory Animals
    Amphibians
    • Overview of Amphibians
      • Description and Physical Characteristics
      • For More Information
    • Environment and Husbandry for Amphibians
      • Quarantine
      • For More Information
    • Clinical Techniques in Amphibians
      • Anesthesia
        • References
      • Euthanasia
      • For More Information
    • Infectious Diseases of Amphibians
      • Bacterial Diseases
      • Brucella inopinata-like
      • Chlamydiosis
      • Mycobacteriosis
      • Red-leg syndrome (bacterial dermatosepticemia)
      • Fungal Diseases
        • Chromoblastomycosis
        • Chytridiomycosis
        • Saprolegniasis
        • Zygomycosis
      • Parasitic Diseases
        • Nematodes
        • Trematodes and Cestodes
        • Arthropods and Crustaceans
        • Protozoa
        • Mesomycetozoans
      • Viral Diseases
        • Ranavirus
        • Ranid herpesvirus-1
      • For More Information
    • Noninfectious Disorders of Amphibians
      • Nutritional Diseases
        • Metabolic bone disease
        • Thiamine deficiency
        • Hypovitaminosis A
        • Obesity
        • Corneal lipidosis
        • Renal oxalosis
        • Urolithiasis
      • Neoplasia
      • Trauma
      • For More Information
    • Emergency Care of Amphibians
      • For More Information
    • Amphibians as Laboratory Animals
      • For More Information
    Aquaculture
    • Overview of Aquaculture
    • Production Methods in Aquaculture
    • Production Medicine and Biosecurity in Aquaculture
      • Animal Management
      • Pathogen Management
      • Human Management
      • Cleaning and Disinfection
    • Necropsy and Diagnostic Techniques in Aquaculture
    • The National Aquatic Animal Health Plan
    • Reportable Diseases and Regulatory Concerns in Aquaculture
      • Health Certification
    • Therapeutic Considerations in Aquaculture
      • FDA-approved Drugs, Indexed Drugs, Pesticides, and Regulatory Concerns
      • Antimicrobials
      • Other Chemotherapeutic Drugs
        • Formalin
        • Chloramine-T
        • Hypersalinity and Hyposalinity
        • Copper Sulfate
        • Potassium Permanganate
        • Diquat
        • Diflubenzuron
      • Anesthetics/Sedatives
        • Tricaine Methanesulfonate (MS-222, TMS)
        • Eugenol
        • Metomidate
      • Spawning Compounds
        • Chorionic Gonadotropin
        • Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone (sGnRHa) + Domperidone
    • Infectious Diseases in Aquaculture
      • Ponds
      • Recirculating Aquaculture Systems
      • Net Pens/Cage Culture
    • Parasitic Diseases in Aquaculture
      • Protists Infecting Gills and Skin
      • Internal Protistan Parasites
      • Internal Metazoan Parasites
      • Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)
      • Other Vermiform Internal Parasites
      • Crustacean Parasites
    • Bacterial Diseases in Aquaculture
      • Common Bacterial Pathogens (Aeromonas, Vibrio, and Edwardsiella)
      • Yersiniosis
      • Edwardsiella piscicida and E piscicida−like Diseases
      • Columnaris and Related Diseases
      • Bacterial Kidney Disease
      • Mycobacteriosis
      • Rickettsia and Rickettsial-like Diseases
      • Francisellosis
    • Mycotic Diseases in Aquaculture
      • Mycotoxins
    • Viral Diseases in Aquaculture
      • Herpesviruses (Alloherpesviruses)
        • Channel Catfish Virus Disease
      • Novirhabdoviruses
        • Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis
        • Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia
      • Iridoviruses
        • Viral Erythrocytic Necrosis
        • Epizootic Hematopoietic Necrosis
        • Largemouth Bass Virus
        • Megalocytiviruses
      • Other Viruses
        • Infectious Salmon Anemia
        • Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis
        • Salmonid Alphaviruses
        • Viral Nervous Necrosis (Betanodaviruses)
    Aquatic Systems
    • Overview, Types, and Features of Aquatic Systems
    • Aquatic Life Support System Components
      • Biologic Filtration
      • Mechanical Filtration
      • Chemical Filtration
    • Equipment Needed for Aquatic Systems and Water Analysis
    • Diagnostics: Taking the Environmental History of Aquatic Systems
    • Environmental Diseases of Aquatic Animals in Aquatic Systems
      • Chlorine, Chloramine, and Other Toxicants
      • Dissolved Gases
      • Nitrogenous Compounds
      • pH and Carbonate Compounds
      • Salinity
      • Temperature
    • Environmental Considerations for Selected Infectious Diseases of Aquatic Animals
      • Mycobacteria
      • Bacterial Gill Disease
      • The Role of Temperature in Infectious Diseases
      • Excessive Organic Load
      • Infectious Sequelae of Environmental Disease
    Aquarium Fish
    • Overview of Aquarium Fish
      • For More Information
    • Fish Taxonomy
      • Ostariophysi
        • Cyprinidae
        • Characiformes
        • Loricariidae
        • Callichthyidae
      • Neoteleostei
        • Cichlidae
        • Poeciliidae
        • Osphronemidae
      • For More Information
    • Management of Aquarium Fish
      • Physiology
      • Obtaining a History and Clinical Information
      • Necropsy and Diagnostic Techniques
      • Treatment Considerations
        • FDA-approved Drugs and Regulatory Concerns
        • Antimicrobials
        • Parasiticides
        • Anesthetics
        • Euthanasia
      • Surgical Considerations
      • Quarantine and Biosecurity
        • Biosecurity for the Home Aquarium
      • Common Water Quality Problems in Hobbyist Aquaria
      • For More Information
    • Nutritional Diseases of Fish
      • For More Information
    • Parasitic Diseases of Fish
      • Protistans Infecting Gills and Skin
        • Ciliates
        • Flagellates
        • Oomycota
      • Internal Protistan Parasites
        • Flagellates
        • Sporozoans
      • Metazoan Parasites
        • Myxozoans
        • Monogeneans
        • Trematodes
      • Cestodes
      • Nematodes
      • Leeches
      • Crustaceans
      • For More Information
    • Bacterial Diseases of Fish
      • Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, and Vibriosis
      • Edwardsiella
      • Epitheliocystis
      • Flavobacterium
      • Gram-positive Bacterial Infections
      • Mycobacteria
      • For More Information
    • Mycotic Diseases of Fish
      • For More Information
    • Viral Diseases of Fish
      • Herpesviruses (Alloherpesviruses)
        • Carp Pox
        • Koi Herpesvirus
        • Herpesviral Hematopoietic Necrosis
        • Herpesvirus of Angelfish
      • Rhabdoviruses
        • Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia (VHS)
        • Spring Viremia of Carp (SVC)
      • Iridoviruses
        • Lymphocystis Disease
        • Megalocytivirus
      • Other Viruses
      • For More Information
    • Neoplasia of Fish
      • For More Information
    Ferrets
    • Overview of Ferrets
      • For More Information
    • Management of Ferrets
      • Housing
      • Nutrition
      • Clinical Care
        • Physical examination
        • Sample collection
        • Anesthesia
      • Vaccination
    • Infectious Diseases of Ferrets
      • Bacterial Diseases
      • Viral Diseases
      • Fungal Diseases
      • Parasitic Diseases
    • Neoplasia of Ferrets
    • Endocrine Disorders of Ferrets
    • Noninfectious Diseases of Ferrets
    Hedgehogs
    • Overview of Hedgehogs
      • Anatomy, Physiology, and Behavior
    • Management of Hedgehogs
      • Housing
      • Diet
      • Breeding and Neonatal Care
      • Restraint and Examination
      • Clinical Techniques
      • Anesthesia and Surgery
      • Preventive Medicine
    • Diseases of Hedgehogs
      • Cardiovascular and Hematologic Diseases
      • Gastrointestinal and Hepatic Diseases
      • Integumentary Diseases
      • Musculoskeletal Diseases
      • Neoplasia
      • Neurologic Diseases
      • Nutritional Disorders
      • Ocular Diseases
      • Oral and Dental Diseases
      • Reproductive Diseases
      • Respiratory Diseases
      • Urinary Diseases
      • Zoonoses
    Laboratory Animals
    • Regulatory Requirements Regarding Use of Laboratory Animals
      • Program Accreditation
      • Veterinary Care
      • Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees
      • Emergency Preparedness
      • For More Information
      • References
    • Animals Used in Research
      • For More Information
      • References
    • Management of Laboratory Animals
      • Housing
      • Bedding
      • Feeding
      • Water
      • Sanitation
      • Pest Control
      • For More Information
      • References
    • Colony Monitoring of Laboratory Animals
      • For More Information
    Llamas and Alpacas
    • Overview of Llamas and Alpacas
    • Management of Llamas and Alpacas
      • Housing
      • Feeding and Nutrition
      • Handling and Restraint
      • Sedation and Anesthesia
      • Clinical Pathology
      • Pharmacology and Cautions
    • Reproduction of Llamas and Alpacas
      • Camelid Reproductive Physiology
        • Females
        • Males
      • Management of Reproductive Problems
    • Herd Health of Llamas and Alpacas
      • Neonatal Care
      • Parasite Control
      • Parasitic Diseases
      • Vaccination
      • Digestive Anatomy
      • Foot Care and Nail Trimming
      • Routine Care
      • Shearing
    • Diseases of Llamas and Alpacas
      • Noninfectious diseases
        • Heat Stress
        • Neoplasia
      • Hepatic disease
        • Camelid Liver
        • Hyperglycemia, Hyperosmolarity, and Insulin Resistance
      • Gastrointestinal Diseases
        • Gastric Ulcers
        • Megaesophagus
        • Small and Large Intestinal Diseases
        • Stomach Atony
      • Congenital Diseases
      • Dermatologic disease
      • Copper Deficiency
      • Dorsal Nasal Alopecia (Dark Nose Syndrome)
      • Zinc-Responsive Dermatosis
      • Munge
      • Bacterial Diseases
      • Viral Diseases
      • Mycoplasma Infection
      • Fungal infections
      • Medical procedures used in camelids
    Marine Mammals
    • Overview of Marine Mammals
    • Management of Marine Mammals
      • Restraint
      • Anesthesia
      • Sample Collection
        • Blood Collection
        • Urine Collection
        • Gastric Sample Collection
        • Respiratory Sample Collection
    • Environmental Diseases of Marine Mammals
      • Ocular Diseases
      • Gastric Foreign Bodies
      • Gastrointestinal Ulcers
      • Trauma
      • Oil Exposure
      • Pneumonia
    • Nutrition and Nutritional Diseases of Marine Mammals
      • Neonatal Nutrition
      • Thiamine Deficiency
      • Vitamin E Deficiency (Steatitis, White Fat Disease)
      • Hyponatremia (Salt Deficiency, Addison Disease)
      • Histamine Toxicosis (Scombroid Poisoning, Mackerel Poisoning)
      • Iron Storage Disease (Hemochromatosis)
    • Bacterial Diseases of Marine Mammals
      • Actinomycetes
      • Brucellosis
      • Clostridial Myositis
      • Erysipelas (Diamond Skin Disease)
      • Leptospirosis
      • Streptothricosis (Dolphin Pseudopox, Cutaneous Dermatophilosis)
      • Mycobacteriosis
      • Mycoplasmosis
      • Miscellaneous Bacterial Diseases
    • Mycotic Diseases of Marine Mammals
      • Aspergillosis
      • Candidiasis
      • Cryptococcosis
      • Dermatophytosis
      • Paracoccidioidomycosis (Lobomycosis, Lacaziosis)
      • Systemic Mycoses
      • Zygomycetes
    • Parasitic Diseases of Marine Mammals
      • Acanthocephalans
      • Acariasis
      • Pediculosis
      • Lungworm
      • Heartworm
      • Other Nematodes
      • Cestodiasis
      • Trematodiasis
      • Coccidiosis
      • Sarcocystis
      • Toxoplasmosis
    • Viral Diseases of Marine Mammals
      • Adenovirus
      • Caliciviruses (San Miguel Sea Lion Virus)
      • Herpesvirus
      • Influenza Virus
      • Morbilliviruses
      • Poxvirus
      • Miscellaneous Viral Diseases
    • Neoplastic Diseases of Marine Mammals
    Miniature Pet Pigs
    • Overview of Miniature Pet Pigs
    • Management of Miniature Pet Pigs
      • Environment
      • Housing
      • Exercise
      • Behavior
      • Training
      • Vaccinations
      • Parasite Control
      • Dental Care
      • Nail and Hoof Care
    • Reproduction of Miniature Pet Pigs
      • Females
      • Males
    • Feeding and Nutrition of Miniature Pet Pigs
    • Diseases of Miniature Pet Pigs
      • Gastrointestinal System
      • Integumentary System
      • Musculoskeletal System
      • Nervous System
      • Respiratory System
      • Urinary System
    Mink
    • Management of Farmed Mink
      • Production Cycle
      • Housing
      • Nutrition
      • Breeding
      • Vaccination
      • Pelt Collection
    • Bacterial Diseases of Mink
      • Botulism
      • Hemorrhagic Pneumonia
      • Urinary Tract Infections and Urolithiasis
      • Foot Pad Necrosis
      • Mastitis
      • Miscellaneous Bacterial Diseases
    • Viral Diseases of Mink
      • Aleutian Disease (Mink Plasmacytosis)
      • Canine Distemper
      • Mink Viral Enteritis
      • Preweaning Diarrhea (Sticky Kit Syndrome)
      • Influenza
      • SARS-CoV-2
      • Pseudorabies (Aujeszky Disease)
      • Astrovirus (Shaky Mink Syndrome)
      • For Further Information
    • Prion Disease of Mink
      • Transmissible Mink Encephalopathy
    • Nutritional Diseases of Mink
    • Toxicosis of Mink
    • Miscellaneous Diseases of Mink
    Nonhuman Primates
    • Overview of Nonhuman Primates
    • Bacterial Diseases of Nonhuman Primates
      • Gastrointestinal Diseases
      • Pneumonia
      • Tetanus
      • Tuberculosis
      • Key Points
    • Fungal Diseases of Nonhuman Primates
      • Key Points
    • Parasites That Cause Disease in Nonhuman Primates
      • Arthropods
      • Helminths
      • Cestodes and Trematodes
      • Protozoa
      • Key Points
    • Viruses That Cause Disease in Nonhuman Primates
      • B Virus
      • Other Herpesviruses
      • Hepatitis A Virus
      • Rubeola (Measles) Virus
      • Mpox Virus
      • Immunodeficiency Viruses
      • Oncornaviruses
      • Respiratory Viruses
      • Gastrointestinal Viruses
      • Hemorrhagic Viruses
      • Key Points
      • For More Information
    • Nutritional Diseases of Nonhuman Primates
      • Key Points
      • For More Information
    • Miscellaneous Conditions of Nonhuman Primates
      • Diabetes Mellitus
      • Dental Disease and Tooth Root Abscesses
      • Endometriosis
      • Acute Gastric Dilatation
      • Neoplasia
      • Noninfectious Diarrhea
      • Trauma
      • Key Points
    • Procedures and Emergency Medical Techniques for Nonhuman Primates
      • Key Points
    • Psychological Well-Being and Environmental Enrichment of Nonhuman Primates
      • Key Points
      • For More Information
    Rabbits
    • Overview of Rabbits
    • Management of Rabbits
      • Restraint
      • Physical Examination and Sample Collection
      • Clinical Pathology
      • Therapeutics
      • Preventive Care
      • Reproduction
        • Rearing Orphaned Kits
      • Surgery
      • Euthanasia
      • Other Management Techniques
      • For More Information
    • Housing of Rabbits
      • Basic Rabbit Husbandry
      • Cages and Ancillary Equipment
      • Pens
      • Group Housing
      • Sanitation
    • Nutrition of Rabbits
      • Water Requirements
      • Calculation of Calorie Intake
      • Carbohydrates
      • Pelleted Diets
      • Recommended Fiber Levels
    • Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases of Rabbits
      • Pasteurellosis
        • Clinical Findings
        • Diagnosis
        • Treatment and Control
        • Key Points
      • Listeriosis
      • Intestinal Diseases
        • Enterotoxemia
        • Tyzzer Disease
        • Colibacillosis
        • Proliferative Enteropathy
        • Mucoid Enteropathy
      • Mastitis
      • Treponematosis
      • Dermatophytosis
      • Tularemia
    • Viral Diseases of Rabbits
      • Myxomatosis
      • Rabbit (Shope) Fibroma Virus
      • Rabbitpox
      • Papillomatosis
      • Rotaviral Infection
      • Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease
    • Parasitic Diseases of Rabbits
      • Coccidiosis
        • Hepatic Coccidiosis
        • Intestinal Coccidiosis
      • Larval Worm Infection
      • Ectoparasites
      • Encephalitozoonosis
        • Clinical Signs
        • Diagnosis
        • Treatment
      • Pinworms
    • Noninfectious Diseases of Rabbits
      • Broken Back
      • Cannibalism
      • Dental Disease
        • Dental Malocclusion
      • Gastric Stasis, Hair Chewing, and Hairballs
      • Liver Lobe Torsion
      • Heat Exhaustion
      • Hutch Burn
      • Ketosis
      • Moist Dermatitis
      • Ophthalmologic Disease
      • Ulcerative Pododermatitis
      • Urolithiasis
      • Heritable Diseases
        • Buphthalmia
        • Splay Leg
      • Neoplasia
      • Cardiovascular Disease
      • For More Information
    Reptiles
    • Clinical Procedures for Reptiles
      • Physical Examination
        • Physical Examination of Snakes
        • Physical Examination of Lizards
        • Physical Examination of Tortoises, Turtles, and Terrapins
      • Anesthesia and Analgesia
        • Preanesthetic Assessment and Stabilization of Reptiles
        • Anesthetic Induction of Reptiles
        • Maintenance of Anesthesia in Reptiles
        • Postoperative Support for Reptiles
      • Diagnostic Techniques
        • Radiology of Reptiles
        • Ultrasonography of Reptiles
        • CT and MRI of Reptiles
        • Blood Collection in Reptiles
        • Necropsy of Reptiles
      • Surgery and Endoscopy
        • Surgery in Reptiles
        • Endoscopy in Reptiles
      • Medical Procedures
        • Drug Dosage and Allometric Scaling in Reptiles
        • Antimicrobials in Reptiles
        • Parasiticides in Reptiles
        • Other Medications in Reptiles
        • Fluid Therapy in Reptiles
      • For More Information
      • References
    • Reproductive Diseases of Reptiles
      • Dystocia (Egg Retention)
      • Vent Prolapse
      • For More Information
    • Overview of Reptiles
      • Anatomy
      • Physiology
      • Reproduction
      • For More Information
    • Management and Husbandry of Reptiles
      • Species
      • Enclosure
      • Heating
      • Environmental Lighting
      • Humidity
      • Quarantine and Recordkeeping
      • Nutrition
      • For More Information
    • Bacterial Diseases of Reptiles
      • Septicemia
      • Septicemic Cutaneous Ulcerative Disease
      • Ulcerative or Necrotic Dermatitis
      • Abscesses
      • Infectious Stomatitis
      • Pneumonia
      • Mycoplasmosis
      • Otitis
      • Cloacitis
      • Spinal Osteopathy/Osteomyelitis
      • Mycobacteriosis
      • Salmonella enterica Infection
      • For More Information
    • Mycotic Diseases of Reptiles
      • For More Information
    • Viral Diseases of Reptiles
      • Inclusion Body Disease of Boid Snakes
      • Retroviruses
      • Adenoviruses
      • Herpesviruses
      • Ferlavirus and Nidovirus
      • West Nile Virus
      • Papillomas
      • Iridoviruses
      • Other Viruses
      • For More Information
    • Parasitic Diseases of Reptiles
      • Ectoparasites
      • Helminths
      • Pentastomes
      • Protozoal Diseases
      • For More Information
    • Environmental Diseases and Traumatic Injuries of Reptiles
      • For More Information
    • Nutritional, Metabolic, and Endocrine Diseases of Reptiles
      • Gout
      • Metabolic Bone Diseases
      • Nutritional Disorders
        • Hypovitaminosis A in Nutritional Disorders of Reptiles
        • Hypovitaminosis B1 (Thiamine) in Nutritional Disorders of Reptiles
        • Obesity in Nutritional Disorders of Reptiles
        • Starvation in Nutritional Disorders of Reptiles
      • Miscellaneous Endocrine Disorders
      • For More Information
    • Neoplastic Diseases of Reptiles
      • For More Information
    Rodents
    • Rodents
    • Chinchillas
      • Biology
      • Husbandry
      • Physical Examination
      • Infectious Diseases
        • Bacterial Infections
        • Viral Infections
        • Parasitic Infections
        • Fungal Infections
      • Dental Disease
      • Gastrointestinal Disorders
      • Metabolic and Other Diseases
      • Traumatic Injuries
      • Reproductive and Iatrogenic Disorders
      • Neoplastic Disorders
      • Miscellaneous Disorders
        • Age-related Disorders
        • Cardiac Disease
        • Foot Disorders
      • Zoonotic Risk
      • For More Information
    • Gerbils
      • Biology
      • Husbandry
      • Physical Examination
      • Infectious Diseases
        • Bacterial, Mycoplasmal, and Rickettsial Infections
        • Viral Infections
        • Parasitic Infections
        • Fungal Infections
      • Metabolic and Nutritional Disorders
      • Traumatic Injuries
      • Iatrogenic Conditions
      • Neoplasia
      • Miscellaneous Disorders
        • Congenital Disorders
        • Age-related Disorders
      • Zoonotic Risk
      • For More Information
    • Guinea Pigs
      • Biology
      • Husbandry
      • Physical Examination
      • Infectious Diseases
        • Bacterial Infections
        • Viral Infections
        • Parasitic Infestations
        • Fungal Infections
      • Metabolic and Nutritional Disorders
      • Reproductive and Iatrogenic Disorders
      • Neoplasia
      • Miscellaneous Disorders
        • Antibiotic Toxicity
        • Urolithiasis
        • Dental Disease
        • Alopecia
      • Zoonotic Risk
      • For More Information
    • Hamsters
      • Biology
      • Husbandry
      • Physical Examination
      • Infectious Diseases
        • Bacterial Infections
        • Viral Infections
        • Parasitic Infections
        • Fungal Infections
      • Neoplasia
      • Miscellaneous Disorders
        • Age-related Disorders
      • Zoonotic Risk
      • For More Information
    • Mice and Rats as Pets
      • Biology
      • Husbandry
      • Physical Examination
      • Infectious Diseases
        • Bacterial Infections
        • Viral Infections
        • Parasitic Infections
        • Fungal Infections
      • Neoplasia
      • Miscellaneous and Iatrogenic Disorders
        • Dental Overgrowth
        • Age-related Disorders
        • Skin Disease
        • Chromodacryorrhea
      • Zoonotic Risk
      • For More Information
    • Mice and Rats as Laboratory Animals
      • For More Information
    Sugar Gliders
    • Diseases and Syndromes of Sugar Gliders
      • Drug Dosages
      • Bacterial Diseases
      • Protozoal and Parasitic Diseases
      • Nutritional Osteodystrophy
      • Dental Disease
      • Diarrhea
      • Pouch Disorders
      • Urinary Tract Disorders
      • Paracloacal Gland Impaction
      • Neurological Disease
      • Neoplasia
      • Behavior Disorders
      • Miscellaneous Disorders
      • Zoonoses
      • Key Points
      • For More Information
      • References
    • Overview of Sugar Gliders
      • Physical Examination
      • Diagnostic and Treatment
      • Blood Collection, Hematology, and Biochemistry
      • Anesthesia and Surgery
      • Nutrition and Housing
      • Key Points
      • For More Information
      • References
    Vaccination of Exotic Mammals
    • Vaccination of Exotic Mammals
      • Rabies
      • Canine Distemper
      • Canine Parvovirus and Feline Parvovirus (Panleukopenia)
      • Clostridial Diseases
      • Measles, Mumps, and Rubella
      • Seasonal Influenza
      • Feline Herpesvirus
      • Feline Calicivirus
      • Equine Encephalitides
      • Canine Adenovirus 1
      • SARS-CoV2 (COVID-19)
      • Leptospirosis
      • Rotavirus and Coronavirus
      • Miscellaneous
      • Key Points
      • For More Information
    Zoo Animals
    • Overview of Zoo Animals
    • Management of Zoo Animals
      • Husbandry
      • Reproduction
    • Preventive Medicine for Zoo Animals
      • Quarantine
      • Parasite Control
      • Vaccination
      • Postmortem Examination
      • Pest Control
      • Nutrition
    • Clinical Care Programs for Zoo Animals
      • Behavioral Training
      • Physical Restraint
      • Diagnostic Techniques
      • Drug Administration
      • Anesthesia
      • Regulatory Issues
      • Zoonoses
    • Common Disorders and Procedures of Zoo Animals
    Birds
    Avian Influenza in Birds
    • Avian Influenza in Birds
    Pet Birds
    • Mycotic Diseases of Pet Birds
      • Candidiasis
        • Clinical Findings
        • Diagnosis
        • Treatment
      • Aspergillosis
        • Clinical Findings
        • Diagnosis
        • Treatment
      • Macrorhabdus ornithogaster Infection
        • Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
        • Treatment and Control
      • Miscellaneous Mycoses
      • For More Information
    • Reproductive Diseases of Pet Birds
      • Behavioral Problems
      • Excessive or Chronic Egg Laying
      • Egg Binding
      • Impacted Oviduct
      • Cystic Ovarian Disease
      • Egg Yolk Coelomitis
      • Cloacal Prolapse
      • Reproductive Failure
      • Medical and Surgical Management
      • Key Points
      • For More Information
    • Overview of Pet Birds
      • For More Information
    • Management of Pet Birds
      • History
      • Physical Examination
      • Routine Grooming Procedures
      • Clinical Pathology
        • Hematology and Plasma Biochemistry of the Neonate
      • Routine Medical Procedures
      • Nutrition
        • Transitioning a Bird to a Pelleted Diet
      • For More Information
    • Bacterial Diseases of Pet Birds
      • Chlamydiosis
        • Clinical Findings
        • Diagnosis
        • Treatment
        • Zoonotic Potential
      • Avian Mycobacteriosis
        • Clinical Findings
        • Diagnosis
        • Treatment
      • For More Information
    • Parasitic Diseases of Pet Birds
      • Parasites of the Circulatory System
        • Protozoa
      • Parasites of the Gastrointestinal System
        • Giardiasis
        • Trichomoniasis
        • Other Protozoal Diseases
        • Roundworms
        • Cestodes
      • Parasites of the Integumentary System
        • Scaly Face (Leg) Mite
        • Feather Mites
      • Parasites of the Respiratory System
        • Air Sac Mites
        • Sarcocystosis
      • For More Information
    • Viral Diseases of Pet Birds
      • Avian Polyomavirus
        • Clinical Findings
        • Diagnosis
        • Treatment and Control
      • Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease
        • Clinical Findings
        • Diagnosis
        • Treatment and Control
      • Pacheco’s Disease
        • Clinical Findings
        • Diagnosis
        • Treatment and Prevention
      • Avian Bornavirus / Proventricular Dilatation Disease
        • Clinical Findings
        • Transmission
        • Diagnosis
        • Treatment
        • Control
      • Poxvirus Infections
      • Viscerotropic Velogenic Newcastle Disease
        • Other Paramyxovirus Infections
      • West Nile Virus
      • Avian Influenza
      • For More Information
    • Geriatric Diseases of Pet Birds
      • Cataracts
      • Arthritis
      • Pododermatitis
      • Cardiac Disease
        • Clinical Findings
        • Diagnosis
        • Treatment
        • Atherosclerosis
      • Kidney Disease
      • Liver Disease
        • Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
        • Treatment
      • For More Information
    • Neoplastic Diseases of Pet Birds
      • Cutaneous, Subcutaneous, and Other Neoplasms
      • Chemotherapy and Radiation Therapy Agents Used in Pet Birds
      • Pseudoneoplastic Skin Conditions
      • For More Information
    • Nutritional Diseases of Pet Birds
      • Obesity
      • Vitamin A Deficiency
      • Iodine Deficiency
      • Calcium, Phosphorus, and Vitamin D3 Imbalance
        • Metabolic Bone Disease (Nutritional Secondary Hyperparathyroidism)
        • Vitamin D Toxicosis
      • Iron Storage Disease
      • Additional Nutritional Concerns
      • For More Information
    • Toxicoses of Pet Birds
      • Heavy Metal Toxicosis
      • Polytetrafluoroethylene Toxicosis
      • Tobacco
      • For More Information
    • Traumatic Injury of Pet Birds
      • For More Information
    • Miscellaneous Diseases of Pet Birds
      • Diabetes Mellitus
      • Feather Cysts
      • Feather Destructive Behavior
      • Gout
      • Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis
      • For More Information
    • Pediatric Diseases of Pet Birds
      • Aspiration Pneumonia
      • Bacterial Disease
      • Yeast Infection
      • Viral Disease
      • Foreign Bodies
      • Crop Stasis
      • Crop Burns
      • Esophageal and Pharyngeal Trauma
      • Hepatic Lipidosis
      • Failure to Thrive
      • Beak Deformities
      • Splayleg or Rotational Leg Deformity
      • Constricted Toe Syndrome
      • Toe Malposition
      • Cryptophthalmia (Eyelid Atresia)
      • Choanal Atresia
      • Key Points
      • For More Information
    Backyard Poultry
    • Overview of Backyard Poultry
      • References
    • Physical Examination of Backyard Poultry
      • Venipuncture and Blood Collection
      • For More Information
    • Management of Backyard Poultry
      • Environment
      • Nutrition
      • For More Information
      • References
    • Laying and Reproduction in Backyard Poultry
      • Incubation and Hatching of Eggs
      • For More Information
    • Vaccination of Backyard Poultry
      • Marek's Disease
      • Newcastle Disease
      • For More Information
    • Common Management-Related Problems in Backyard Poultry
      • Cannibalism
      • Trauma
      • Fatty Liver
      • Cage Layer Fatigue (Osteoporosis)
      • Cloacal Prolapse (Vent Blowout)
      • Egg Binding
      • Key Points
      • For More Information
    • Common Infectious Diseases in Backyard Poultry
      • Parasitism
      • Viral Diseases
        • Avian Encephalomyelitis
        • Avian Influenza
        • Fowlpox
        • Infectious Bronchitis
        • Marek's Disease
        • Newcastle Disease
      • Bacterial Infections
        • Colibacillosis
        • Mycoplasmosis (Chronic Respiratory Disease)
        • Salmonellosis
      • Fungal Diseases
        • Aspergillosis
        • Favus (Avian Ringworm)
      • Antimicrobial Use
      • Key Points
      • For More Information
      • References
    Ratites
    • Overview of Ratites
    • Management of Ratites
      • Physical and Laboratory Examination
      • Anesthesia
      • Surgical Procedures
      • Nutrition
      • Vaccination
    • Reproduction of Ratites
      • Anatomy
      • Breeding
      • Hatching
      • Reproductive Diseases
    • Chick Management (Ratites)
    • Infectious Diseases of Ratites
      • Parasitic Diseases
        • Protozoa
        • Cestodes
        • Nematodes
        • Arthropods
    • Digestive System Disorders of Ratites
    • Musculoskeletal Disorders of Ratites
    • Toxicoses of Ratites
    • Trauma of Ratites
    Trichomonosis
    • Trichomonosis in Birds
      • Etiology
      • Epidemiology and Transmission
      • Clinical Findings
        • Lesions
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment and Control
      • Key Points
      • For More Information
    Viral Encephalitides
    • Viral Encephalitides
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